01 Психология и философия

Main ideas / lessons

• Why study “psychology” at all (and why it may feel confusing at first)

  • Expect unfamiliar emotional impressions: some material may feel familiar, while other parts may seem boring or unclear.
  • Practical advice:
    • Write down what the lecturer presents.
    • Remember an epigraph-like idea introduced at the start.

• A key methodological/philosophical framing (Claude Lévi-Strauss)

  • Lévi-Strauss’ idea:
    • An ancient myth can be seen as an answer to a question we have not yet asked.
  • Applied to psychology course notes:
    • Course notes are answers to questions that may arise later in professional life.
    • So it’s important to record answers now, even if they seem unusual.

• Lecture structure and institutional setup (Valery V. Petukhov)

  • The course is introduced as General Psychology, with a “minimum of knowledge” volume.
  • Instructor credentials are emphasized:
    • Candidate of Psychological Sciences, Associate Professor
    • Awards: Lomonosov Prize (pedagogical activity, 1993), and “Best Teacher” medal (humanities department).
  • Logistics:
    • Video cameras are installed; the introductory part will be filmed.
    • Students are asked not to feel embarrassed—treat it as a chance to observe oneself while learning.

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Topic 1: General characteristics of psychology as a science

1) Meaning of the word “psychology”

• “Psychē” (psyche/soul)

  • From ancient Greek: psyche = soul.
  • Illustrated via the myth of Psyche, who becomes immortal—symbolizing that “soul” can be eternal even if humans are mortal.

• “Logos”

  • Not a single-word translation; rather a cluster of meanings:
    • reasonable word, concept, comprehension, study, the process of understanding.

• Combined definition

  • Psychology = a reasonable concept/process about the soul, i.e., a science of the psyche.

• Psychology as an independent science

  • Relatively young: since 1879, psychology becomes an independent scientific discipline.
  • Initially oriented toward natural sciences (physics, chemistry, biology).
  • Yet psychology remains humanitarian in specificity—a dual identity:
    • it tries to be natural-science-like,
    • while addressing human/subjective life, which always brings humanities concerns.

2) Defining the psyche (and psyche-based regulation)

The psyche has two main properties:

1. Reflection

   • The psyche is a subjective reflection of reality.
   • Includes forms such as perception, thinking, memory, attention, etc.

2. Function / Regulation

   • The psyche serves to regulate behavior—to control one’s own actions.

Synthesis

• Psyche = reflection of reality necessary for the subject to live and be active, including regulation/control of behavior.

Humans and animals

• The lecturer notes that both humans and animals possess a psyche.

3) Defining consciousness

• Consciousness is presented as the highest form of the psyche.
• It has two clarified characteristics:
  1. Self-reflection
     • Not only reflecting the world, but also reflecting oneself in that world.
     • The ability to give an account of one’s inner mental experiences.
  2. Regulation of joint activity
     • Consciousness is necessary for rational organization of people’s joint activities.

Final definition (as stated)

• Consciousness = the subject’s idea of the world and its place in it, linked to the ability to account for internal mental experience, and necessary for rational organization of collective human action.

Early scientific method

• Since consciousness can be studied, the first named method is:
  • Introspection (“look inside,” self-observation).

4) Two meanings of “psychology” and two branches

Because “psychology” has two meanings, “psychologist” also has two meanings.

• Meaning 1 (science)

  • Psychology as the science of the psyche/consciousness:
    • called General Psychology
    • focuses on mental processes (any subject considered in general).

• Meaning 2 (individual portrait)

  • Psychology as an individual structure/portrait:
    • related words: character, temperament, mentality
  • Grouped under individuality:
    • individuality = the set of mental traits and behavior patterns that distinguish a subject from others
    • also attributed to animals (e.g., pets, zoo animals) as individual temperaments/traits.

Branches

• General Psychology: mental processes; subject considered in general.
• Differential Psychology (psychology of individual differences):
  • studies individuality among individuals.
• Lecturer’s point:
  • these two branches complement each other.

Scientific vs everyday psychologist

• In everyday life, everyone is a psychologist in the sense of understanding and influencing people.
• Lecturer’s advice:
  • no “competition” between everyday and scientific psychology:
    • scientific psychology is young,
    • everyday psychology has always existed and will continue.

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Part of the lecture: From history/practice/philosophy toward scientific psychology

A) Psychology and philosophy before psychology becomes science

The progression described:

• everyday practice and philosophy → psychology within philosophy → consciousness as the first topic of scientific psychology.

B) Psychology within everyday experience (differential psychology origins)

Core idea:

• Everyday psychology often starts with individual differences.

Ancient Greek source: Theophrastus (“Characteristics”)

• Method demonstrated: define a trait, then show behavior in situations.
• Examples of traits described (as “everyday definitions”):
  • fussiness, vanity, rudeness (with scenario-like illustrations).

Ancient Chinese source: “Zhuangzi” / “Zu An” style text (as referenced)

• Also provides trait-like descriptions, but more laconic.
• Includes:
  • individual traits
  • emotional states and how they are managed (a concern of everyday life).

C) Emotions and how everyday terms later map to scientific ones

• Everyday emotional poles:
  • pleasure vs displeasure
• Additional development in the Chinese text:
  • interest increases with the unpleasant pole, since it’s harder to manage.

Ladder of intensity (as described)

• unpleasantness → strong irritation → affect (loss of self-control) → ambivalent states (both scary and pleasant).

Freud as an example

• Freud is mentioned to show how everyday terms can later become scientific labels (parallels drawn, without fully operationalizing them yet).

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Temperament typologies (from ancient ideas to scientific factor theory)

1) Temperament as “mixture”

• Temperament traced etymologically to “mixture” (how different elements are mixed in proportion).

2) Hippocrates: bodily fluids → temperament names

• Four fluids:
  • blood, phlegm, bile, black bile (melancholy)
• These map into temperament names (via later psychological interpretation):
  • sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric, melancholic.

3) Pavlov: psychophysiological re-grounding

• The “basis” of temperament shifts to properties of the nervous system.
• Four types remain, reusing the older temperament words.

4) Eysenck: factor analysis and two key dimensions

Lecturer’s credit:

• Hans Eysenck identified temperament dimensions using:
  • factor analysis (a method that reduces many behavior properties into broader factors).

Over ~20 years, two main factors are concluded:

1. Emotional stability vs neuroticism (unstable)
   • treated with a + / − logic
2. Extraversion vs introversion
   • linked historically to ideas attributed to Carl Jung
   • introversion = orientation toward self
   • extraversion = orientation toward the outside/world

Resulting combinations (as presented)

• emotionally stable extravert = sanguine
• emotionally stable introvert = phlegmatic
• emotionally unstable extravert = choleric
• emotionally unstable introvert = melancholic

Caution

• A person is not “only” one type—this framework yields an individual profile.

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Psychology and philosophy: knowing the soul (Plato vs Aristotle)

Shared framing

• Every philosopher is treated as inevitably doing “psychology” in a broad sense:
  • questions about world-image and the human mind/soul/consciousness overlap.

Plato (soul as essence; strategic/therapeutic self-development)

Key idea: “What is the soul?”

• Soul = the true essence, true form/maximum manifestation, essence of a thing.
• Applied to people via “know thyself” → reveal one’s essence.
• Lecturer emphasizes:
  • Plato is not building an experimental “science of the soul” like later psychology.

Strategy for knowing the soul

• Requires following moral/logical rules.
• Interference:
  • for Plato, the body interferes with pure striving.
• Optimistic stance:
  • the soul does not depend on the body in principle;
  • obstacles can be overcome.

Tactics for knowing the soul

• Plato’s approach: the soul is not divisible into parts.
• Implementation means:
  • not building an ideal “in small pieces,” but transforming as a whole
  • examples framed as existential decisions (e.g., “to marry or not,” “to work or not”).
• A Gestalt concept is introduced:
  • Gestalt = holistic form (“whole”), not reducible to the sum of parts.
• Practical tie-in:
  • framed as development/“psychotherapy” (educational assistance for personal development), linked back to Socratic/Plato dialogue.

Freud and Plato (parallel strategy language)

• Freud is presented as a modern translator of similar problem structure:
  • obstacle becomes the “It” (id), i.e., an inner impediment.
• Therapeutic principle (summarized):
  • what was “there” should become I
  • obstacles can be overcome through development/insight.

Aristotle (soul as form/purpose; research approach)

What is the soul?

• Soul = form and functional purpose:
  • e.g., soul of an axe = to chop
  • soul of the eye = to see

Strategy for studying it

• Unlike Plato, Aristotle ties soul to the body:
  • study essence scientifically through bodily embedding.

Methods/tactics

• For scientific analysis, the soul must be treated as divisible into abilities.
• These correspond to modern mental processes:
  • sensations, perception, memory, attention, imagination, etc.

Conclusion

• Aristotle is presented as an early source for research psychology (scientific experimental approach).

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Transition to scientific psychology (Wundt / 1879 / consciousness)

Wundt’s laboratory program (associative/experimental psychology)

• Historical anchors:
  • Germany, Leipzig, 1879
  • Wilhelm Wundt as founder of scientific psychology
  • “birth year” linked to establishing/opening an institute for students.

First subject

• consciousness

Method

• introspection

Wundt’s tasks (as stated)

1. Describe properties of consciousness
2. Describe elements of consciousness and their connections

Resulting outcome

• Psychology becomes like a natural science:
  • consciousness has properties,
  • consciousness can be analyzed into elements.

Example demonstration with metronome

• Subjects are trained to attend to beats and introspect.

Property of consciousness

• rhythmicity (organized/structured consciousness)

Elements

• sensation (hard to isolate fully)
• representation (from combining sensations)
• subjective vs objective aspects:
  • objective = originating from an external object
  • subjective = internal feelings/experiences (e.g., pleasure/displeasure)

Capacity limit

• Maximum number of elements simultaneously:
  • framed as Wundt’s limit (later associated with working memory)
  • presented as up to six elements (with mention of “7 ± 2” in later modification).
• Closing example:
  • information tasks with a structured “table” (limited columns/rows) reflect that maximum.

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Speakers / sources mentioned

• Valery Viktorovich Petukhov — lecturer; Department of General Psychology
• Claude Lévi-Strauss — quote about myths as answers
• Wilhelm Wundt — founder of experimental/scientific psychology; introspection; Leipzig 1879
• Sergei Leonidovich Rubinstein — author of Fundamentals of General Psychology
• Theophrastus — Characteristics
• “Zhuangzi” / “Zu An” — Chinese text referenced for trait/emotion examples
• Plato — soul as essence; knowing the soul strategy/tactics
• Aristotle — soul as form/purpose; scientific research approach
• Socrates — linked to Plato’s dialogues/open discussion; self-knowledge
• Abraham Maslow — humanistic psychology; self-actualization
• Carl Rogers — humanistic psychotherapy; open communication groups
• Carl Gustav Jung — introversion/extraversion; linked factors
• Sigmund Freud — “It” becoming “I”; therapy/development framing
• Hippocrates — bodily fluids origins of temperament
• Ivan Pavlov — psychophysiological re-grounding of temperament
• Hans Eysenck — factor analysis; two-factor model
• James Joyce — Ulysses (psychology via art example)
• Mikhail Afanasyevich Bulgakov — The Master and Margarita (“soul has no parts” metaphor)
• Nikolai V. Gogol — clearly named in anecdotes/quotes
• Gestalt — German theoretical concept (not a person)
• Pavlovian school — mentioned as a framing label