PBS Nova How Smart Can We Get

Scientific concepts, discoveries, and nature/biological phenomena

1) Brain anatomy linked to “intelligence” (Albert Einstein case)

• Uniqueness in brain structure can be identified through external and internal anatomical examination.

Parietal lobe enlargement (top-back of head)

• Hypothesis: a portion of Einstein’s parietal lobe was ~15% larger than in other brains examined.
• Function (proposed): involved in building internal 3D/spatial models and spatial imaging, and implicated in processing relationships relevant to physics and mathematics.

Motor cortex “knob” expansion (frontal lobe, right side controlling left hand)

• Discovery: an unusual expanded feature in the motor region of Einstein’s frontal lobe.
• Linked experience: musicians who learn string instruments in childhood develop similar motor-cortex features—Einstein reported violin lessons.

Prefrontal cortex unusual folding

• Discovery: Einstein’s prefrontal cortex showed four large gyri on the frontal right side (vs. commonly three).
• Function (proposed): higher cognitive functions such as memory maintenance, planning, and daydreaming/thought experiments.

Gyri and sulci (cortical folding)

• Cortical folds increase brain surface area to fit within the skull.
• As a general heuristic, more folds often suggest more cortical neurons/capacity.

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2) Functional neuroimaging of cognition and math

fMRI (functional MRI)

• Measures cognition-related activity indirectly via blood flow changes.

Math problem solving

• Math-gifted individuals show greater activation in parietal regions during math tasks.
• One reported study described ~5–6× more neuron activation in relevant parietal areas.

Intelligence as network coordination

• Instead of isolated “smart” regions, intelligence may depend on communication across brain networks.
• Regions reported as co-activating during problem solving: hippocampus, parietal lobe, and frontal lobe.
• Key idea: coordination among regions matters.

White matter vs. gray matter

• Gray matter: neuron-rich outer regions.
• White matter: long connecting fibers.
• Emerging view: intelligence may depend on the patterns of connections (“spaghetti-like” networks) that integrate regions.

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3) Brain improvement via learning and “use it or lose it”

Plasticity

• Repeated practice can increase brain tissue measures.

Evidence mentioned

• Juggling over time increases gray matter in a brain region involved in juggling.
• Newer work suggests increases may also occur in white matter.

Rule of thumb

• Learning new skills and practicing can “grow” aspects of brain structure/function.

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4) Memory as a component of “smart behavior”

Hippocampus

• Supports short-term memory within the described “brain-structure segment.”

Memory champions and mnemonic strategies

• Use mnemonics that transform lists into vivid multimodal visual stories to bind information more strongly.

Example methodology (memory techniques)

• Study everyday objects/locations in a room.
• Create a sequence of mental images that ties each object/location to a word.
• Make images strange/vivid and often multi-sensory (e.g., visual + auditory concepts).
• Mentally “walk” through the space to recall the ordered list.

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5) Savant syndrome and “one-sided” brain functioning

Savant syndrome types

• Born/early (congenital) savants (e.g., calendar calculator).
• Acquired savants: unusual abilities that appear after injury/disease.

George Widener (calendar savant)

• Ability: computes or “sees” dates to determine day-of-week, and creates calendar-number art.
• Imaging: MRI/fMRI suggests atypical task activation:
  • During calendar calculation, activation appears highly concentrated on one hemisphere (with comparatively sparse activity on the right), suggesting specialized focusing of processing resources.

Derek Amato (piano after head injury)

• After severe head injury: headaches/memory loss, then an uncontrollable need to play piano.
• Sheet music may be perceived as black/white squares that guide playing.

Anne Adams (speech decline + art development)

• Progressive loss of speech areas while art-related visual circuitry remodels/compensates.

General mechanism proposed

• When one neural circuit deteriorates, other circuits can compensate and become dominant.
• For some savants, rebalancing may reduce or alter typical network usage.

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6) “Choking under pressure” and cognitive performance

Working memory as a “mental scratch pad”

• Depends heavily on the prefrontal cortex.

Anxiety and emotional interference

• High anxiety can disrupt reasoning by interfering with working memory.
• Proposed mechanism: emotional/affective centers (e.g., the amygdala) interfere with prefrontal working memory.
• “Chokers” show increased emotional impact that interrupts working memory.
• “Non-chokers” may show reduced “cross-talk” between emotion centers and prefrontal cortex.

MRI-based stress paradigm (experimental design)

• Use math problems that become progressively stressful.
• Add social-evaluation and money incentives.
• Include video recording to increase pressure.
• Measure performance change relative to a baseline (reported ~11–12% drop for chokers).
• Use imaging to examine working memory (prefrontal) and emotion-related (amygdala) interactions.

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7) Intervention: journaling to reduce anxiety-driven performance drops

Pre-test emotional disclosure journaling

• Before high-stakes exams, students write about worries/thoughts/feelings.
• Reported outcome: improved average scores (e.g., B− to B+, about half a grade point).

Proposed mechanism

• Journaling helps “offload” worries (like closing background programs), freeing cognitive resources for working memory and performance.

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Lists / methodologies explicitly described

Memory champion technique (40-word list)

• Step 1: Walk around a room and identify specific objects/places to serve as memory anchors.
• Step 2: Build a ridiculous, vivid story on/around each anchor so each word is represented by a concrete image/action.
• Encoding rule: the story should be multisensory and exaggerated to improve retention.
• Recall rule: mentally “traverse” the room in order to retrieve the sequence.

Choking-under-pressure MRI experiment (stress induction)

• Give participants a baseline block of problems.
• Increase pressure by:
  • making math items strange/difficult,
  • adding monetary incentives and partner-dependence stakes,
  • using video recording in the environment,
  • performing tasks while scanned in an MRI.
• Compare performance change between baseline and stressed conditions.
• Use brain imaging to examine working memory (prefrontal) and emotion-related (amygdala) interactions.

Journaling intervention before exams

• Before a high-stakes biology test, students:
  • write about their deepest thoughts/feelings and worries about the exam (or sit quietly),
  • then take the test.
• Compare scores between journaling and non-writing control groups.

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Researchers / sources featured (as named in the subtitles)

• David POG (host/producer figure in the video)
• Thomas Harvey (pathologist who removed/dissected Einstein’s brain)
• Frederick “Fred” Leapor (neurologist seeking access to Einstein’s brain; appears as “Fre leapor” in subtitles)
• Sandra Whitton (Canadian neurologist with a large brain collection)
• David Zagzag (pathologist assisting certification/analysis segment)
• John Ginos (neurosurgeon assisting certification/analysis segment)
• Michael Oy (researcher studying brains of math geniuses; also referenced with scanning a math student)
• Dean Falk (anthropologist analyzing brain surface features/folds; said to use Einstein photos)
• Richard H. (researcher associated with an Albuquerque lab using MEG; name appears as “Richard H”)
• Rex Yung (co-researcher associated with MEG/Albuquerque intelligence study)
• Seon BILOCK (cognitive scientist studying choking under pressure; name appears as “Cion Bilock” in subtitles)
• Chester Santos (2008 US memory champion; memory technique demonstration)
• Nelson (memory championship competitor referenced; surname not clearly legible in subtitles)
• Derral Trefford (psychiatrist/expert on savant syndrome)
• Joy Hirs (neuroradiologist studying George/Amy; name appears as “Joy hirs”)
• Derek Amato (acquired savant case mentioned)
• George Widener (calendar savant)
• Anne Adams (acquired savant-like case involving art development)
• C. Bac (soccer goalkeeper; appears as “C BAC” / “Cion” in subtitles—treated as the same featured researcher/participant segment depending on subtitle error)
• Stephen Hawking, Isaac Newton, Albert Einstein (scientists referenced as part of the narrative, not as researchers conducting the described experiments)

Note: Several names appear with likely auto-subtitle errors (e.g., “Fred leapor,” “Joy hirs,” “Seon bilock,” “Richard H”). The list above reflects the names as they appear in the provided subtitles.